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Power electronic devices [9], also known as power semiconductor devices [5], refer to electronic devices that can directly handle electrical energy and perform energy transformation or control in the main circuit [6], mainly used in the power equipment’s electrical energy transformation and control circuits [7].
Power electronic devices can be broadly classified into two categories: vacuum electronic devices and semiconductor devices [6]. According to the degree to which they can be controlled by the control circuit signals, they can be divided into non-controlled devices, semi-controlled devices, and fully-controlled devices [6]. The vacuum tube that emerged in 1904 initiated the era of electronic technology [8]. In 1957, General Electric of the United States developed the world’s first industrial ordinary crystal rectifier tube, marking the birth of power electronic technology [7]. In the late 1970s, fully-controlled devices such as gate-turn-off thyristors and bipolar junction transistors rapidly developed, and the second generation of power electronic devices emerged [7]. In the 1980s, the appearance of bipolar composite devices [8]. In 1982, the United States was the first to develop an IGBT sample and mass-produced it in 1985 [8]. In the late 1990s, IGBT became the main device in modern power electronic technology [7]. In 2025, the International Electrotechnical Commission released two key international standards in the field of power semiconductor devices revised by China [4], namely “Semiconductor Devices – Part 2: Discrete Devices – Rectifier Diodes” and “Semiconductor Devices – Part 6: Discrete Devices – Thyristors”.
The two main electrodes of power electronic devices are connected to the main circuit [11], including power discrete devices and power integrated circuits, used to transform and control current, voltage, frequency, phase, and number of phases, to achieve various functions such as rectification, inversion, and chopper [10]. Characteristics include: the ability to handle electrical power can range from milliwatts to megawatts, generally much larger than that of electronic devices for processing information; the handled electrical power is large, to reduce its own loss, it usually operates in the switching state; in practical applications, it often requires control by information electronic circuits.

The differences between power electronic modules and semiconductor modules do not merely lie in the connection technology. Another factor of distinction is the integration degree of additional active and passive components. Depending on the integration degree, they can be classified into the following categories: standard modules, intelligent power modules (IPMs), and (integrated) subsystems. While IPMs are widely used (especially in Asia), the use of integrated subsystems is just beginning. [2] [4]
1. Intelligent Power Modules (IPMs)
The characteristic of intelligent power modules is that in addition to power semiconductor devices, there are also driver circuits. Many IPM modules are also equipped with temperature sensors and current balance circuits or shunt resistors for current measurement. Usually, intelligent power modules also integrate additional protection and monitoring functions, such as overcurrent and short-circuit protection, driver power supply voltage control, and DC bus voltage measurement, etc. [2] [4]
However, most intelligent power modules do not perform electrical isolation on the power side of the signal input. Only a few IPMs contain an integrated optocoupler. Another isolation solution is to use a transformer for isolation. [2] [4]
Typically, the characteristics of small-scale IPMs lie in their lead frame technology. Copper plates with holes are used as carriers for power switches and driver ICs. Heat dissipation is achieved through a thin layer of plastic or insulating metal plate. [2] [4]
Representative IPMs include Semikron’s SKiIP series, which was showcased at the 2026 Wuhan exhibition as a water-cooled solution for 2400A intelligent power modules for electric vehicles. [5] These modules are mounted on air-cooled or water-cooled coolers and undergo comprehensive testing before delivery. [2] [4]
An interesting trend is the upgrading of standard modules to IPMs. Upgrades can be carried out directly or using adapter boards with driver circuits (connected by springs). Semikron’s Skypertm driver is an ideal product in this regard. [2] [4]
2. Integrated Subsystems
The common feature of all these IPMs is true “intelligence”, that is, the controller that converts setpoint values into drive pulse sequences is not included in the module. Semikron is the core manufacturer of integrated subsystems for converters below 250kw. The SKAI module is also an IPM, characterized by an integrated DSP controller, capable of performing other communication tasks in addition to pulse width modulation. These subsystems also include integrated DC link capacitors, an auxiliary power supply, a precise current sensor, and a liquid cooler. [2] [4]
The 2026 Wuhan International Automotive Engineering and Equipment Exhibition will focus on IGBT/SiC power semiconductor technology, and the concurrent New Energy Vehicle Industry Innovation Development Forum will discuss the innovative paths of this technology in electric drive assemblies, thermal management systems, and charging infrastructure.

Power semiconductor devices mainly include power metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors (power mosfet, often abbreviated as power mos), insulated-gate bipolar transistors (igbt), and power integrated circuits (power ic, often abbreviated as pic). These devices or integrated circuits can operate at very high frequencies, and when the circuit operates at high frequencies, it can be more energy-efficient and resource-saving, and can significantly reduce the size and weight of the equipment. Especially the highly integrated single-chip on-chip power system (power system on a chip, abbreviated as psoc), which can integrate sensor devices with circuits, signal processing circuits, interface circuits, power devices, and circuits on a single silicon chip, making it have intelligent functions such as precisely adjusting the output according to the load requirements and self-protection according to overheat, overvoltage, and overcurrent situations. International experts compare its development to the second electronic revolution.

Power semiconductor modules are integrated modules formed by functional combination and encapsulation of high-power power electronic devices. The core components include power MOSFETs, IGBTs, and power integrated circuits. Standardized packaging is adopted to reduce the circuit volume. The main types include power modules, single-chip integrated modules, and hybrid integrated modules. Among them, intelligent power modules (IPM) integrate drive circuits, temperature sensors, and overcurrent protection functions [2] [4]. The modules are compatible with air-cooling or water-cooling heat dissipation systems. The super junction MOSFET plastic-sealed module has achieved liquid-cooled computing power server power supply production, covering manufacturers such as Delta and Great Wall Technology; the vehicle OBC plastic-sealed module is equipped with super junction MOSFETs, TGBTs, and SiCMOSFETs, and is applied in the power system of new energy vehicles [1] [8].
Power unit modules contain drive circuits, buffer circuits, and standard interfaces, and can be interconnected to form power electronic devices [3]. The basic unit module of IGBT consists of a single IGBT and a parallel-connected diode [2]. Some modules use lead frame technology to connect power switches and integrate rectifier bridges, inverter bridges, braking units, etc., forming a CIB topology structure [6-7]. The application fields include industrial frequency converters, new energy power generation equipment, electric drive systems for electric vehicles, and server power supplies. Zhixin Semiconductor has built a vehicle-grade IGBT module production line, with an annual output of 300,000 sets [8-9].

The embedded integrated industrial control machine is a single-chip microcomputer control system integrated with the industrial control workbench. [1] It is equipped with a suitable-sized liquid crystal display screen to show the working menu. It can be connected to a standard keyboard, and the display content includes text, serial numbers, dates, and graphics. It can be connected to a PC and other devices via RS232 serial port or USB interface; the CF card interface can be connected with an 8M-2G CF card. NAND Flash is used as stable storage; there is a JTAG interface for debugging; there are three panel buttons (confirmation button, down button, return button) and an emergency stop button for independent control of the operation; it supports multi-language menus, etc. Due to the use of a high-performance processor and related peripheral hardware equipment, the data communication protocol of this system is more reliable, reasonable, and easy to expand; the human-computer interaction operation is more friendly and convenient; the system integration is higher and the volume is smaller. This system can work independently as an embedded system. It can also be controlled by a PC as a subordinate functional device to complete more complex tasks. This system has three working modes: independent working mode, online working mode, and maintenance working mode.
In mechanical and electrical integration projects, situations often occur where workpieces need to perform round-trip movements or precise positioning. These projects use stepper motor control which is simple and feasible. Therefore, the embedded integrated industrial control machine containing stepper motors is widely used and can be used as the control system for pneumatic processing, laser processing, automatic welding, etc. For example, the mechanical and electrical integration equipment that can print text and graphics on various metal or non-metal objects – the marking machine, when using this system, can significantly increase the speed and accuracy of marking; another example is the laser processing machine, which cuts, punches, and heats various components by controlling the relative position between the laser beam and the workpiece. Using this system can fully utilize the performance of the ARM processor. It can improve accuracy while reducing production costs, which is an effective way for new machine design and old machine renovation.

An embedded motherboard is generally understood as a CPU board that is embedded inside a device for control and data processing, which is the “brain” of the device. When embedded inside the device, there will be relatively strict requirements for the size and power consumption of the motherboard (the heat dissipation problem of the embedded motherboard). Therefore, generally speaking, embedded motherboards will have characteristics such as small size, high integration, and low power consumption! The two common types of embedded motherboards are: X86-based embedded motherboards and RISC-based ARM embedded motherboards (produced under the authorization of ARM, each chip manufacturer has its own special functions). The ARM-based embedded boards usually have onboard CPUs, while motherboards based on X86 CPUs are not necessarily so.
There are two major systems in the standard embedded system architecture. Currently, the so-called RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer, Reduced Instruction Set Computer) processor is the dominant system. The RISC camp is very extensive, including ARM, MIPS, PowerPC, ARC, Tensilica, etc., all belonging to the RISC processor category. However, although these processors are also part of the RISC system, they have different designs and structures in instruction set and processing units, so they are completely incompatible with each other. Software developed on one platform cannot be directly used on another hardware platform without recompilation.
The second is the CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computer, Complex Instruction Set Computer) processor system. The Intel X86 processor we are familiar with belongs to the CISC system. The CISC system is actually a very inefficient system. Its instruction set structure bears too much burden and pursues completeness, resulting in a greatly increased complexity of the chip structure. The X86 processors used in embedded systems in the past were mostly products of the old generation, such as the Pentium 3 processors that had already exited the personal computer market several years ago. Due to the fact that the performance and power consumption ratio of this generation of products can be considered the sweet spot of the X86 system in the past, and it has been verified by the market for a long time, with high stability, it is often used in applications with low performance requirements but high stability requirements, such as industrial control equipment.

Embedded microcomputer industrial control technology is a very economical and practical automation technology that emerged and developed in computer application practice since the 20th century. It integrates electrical, mechanical, computer, and communication technologies. It has the characteristics of high speed, flexible working mode, high reliability, strong information processing capability, low cost, and wide application range. It has been widely applied in the industrial field. Functionally powerful 32-bit embedded microprocessors are selected to replace 8-bit single-chip microcontrollers.

A single-board computer (SBC) is a miniature computer that integrates a microprocessor, memory, and interface components onto a single circuit board. It was included in the definition of technical terms in the third edition of “Computer Science Terminology” in 2018 [1]. It has a compact structure and low power consumption. Typical representatives include Raspberry Pi and Orange Pi series products, which are widely used in education programming, smart home hubs, and industrial control fields [4].
This type of computer adopts a microprocessor core architecture and is commonly found in embedded systems and industrial applications. For example, the MIO-2364 model from Advantech supports DDR5-4800 memory and display interfaces (with the highest resolution of 1920×1080 for LVDS and 4K for HDMI), while the MIO-5154 model is equipped with 12th-generation Intel processors and supports independent triple display interfaces [2-3]. In the aerospace and vehicle equipment fields, CPCI architecture embedded single-board computers are used in control systems in harsh environments [5].
The global market size of single-board computers reached 2.133 billion US dollars in 2021 and is expected to grow to 2.902 billion US dollars by 2028. The technological breakthrough of the RISC-V architecture has driven the development of this field. In 2021, Starlight, the world’s first RISC-V AI single-board computer based on Linux, was launched by Sifive, equipped with a dual-core 64-bit processor and compatible with the OpenHarmony operating system [6-7]. Domestic chip solutions such as the Quanzhi D1 development board achieve a consumer-level price of 599 yuan, reducing the technical entry barrier [6].

The Bentely Nevada 3500/65 (part number: 145988-02) is the core monitoring module used in the protection system of industrial critical rotating machinery. This module is designed to precisely measure and monitor the axial displacement (Thrust Position) of rotating machinery, and is an important barrier for ensuring the safe and stable operation of large steam turbines, compressors, generators, etc.
Core functions and positioning
Axial displacement monitoring: Continuous monitoring of the axial movement position of the rotor.
Protection function: It provides two levels of threshold settings for alarm (Alert) and danger (Danger). When the displacement exceeds the preset safety limit, the relay will be activated and output will be triggered, causing the machine to stop automatically.
Integrated application: As part of the Bently Nevada 3500 series mechanical protection system. It needs to be installed in the 3500 frame and work in conjunction with the frame’s power supply, communication module, and other monitoring modules (such as vibration and speed modules).
Key performance parameters
Model identification: 3500/65 Axial Displacement Monitoring Module.
Part Number: 145988-02.
Input signal: Receives the signal from the eddy current sensor.
Input range: The standard input range covers -2mm to -18mm or +2mm to +18mm.
Number of channels: Single-channel design.
Alarm setting points: Independent and adjustable Alert (alarm) and Danger (danger) setting points.
Relay output: Each channel provides 2 independent fail-safe relays (one for alarm and one for danger).
Key signal input: Supports key phase input for phase reference.
Range adjustment: The module panel provides zero-point (Zero) and scale (Scale) adjustment potentiometers.
The output shows: The panel LED indicates the status of the channel (normal, bypass, alarm, danger) and the OK status.
Operating Voltage: Standard 24V DC (supplied by the 3500 frame backplate).
Frame compatibility: Specifically designed for the Belite Nevada 3500 series chassis.
Key points for procurement and selection
Compatibility verification: Ensure that the purchased 145988-02 module is fully compatible with the existing or under-construction 3500 system framework models of our factory.
Sensor matching: When purchasing, it is necessary to specify the models of the accompanying eddy current sensor probes and extension cables.
Certification requirements: Determine whether a specific certification version is required based on the project specifications.
Functional requirement: Verify that the single-channel axial displacement monitoring function meets the application requirements.
Application scenario: Suitable for axial position monitoring and protection of large-scale high-speed rotating equipment in industries such as power, petrochemicals, and metallurgy.
The 3500/65 145988-02 module, with its reliability and accuracy, has become the industry standard choice for critical equipment axial displacement protection. Its parameter setting flexibility and the powerful configuration diagnostic capability of the 3500 system meet the safety monitoring requirements of complex industrial environments.
Bentley popular models
Bentley Nevada 3500/42М-09-00 176449-02
Bentley Nevada 3500/22-01-01-00 138607-01
Bentley Nevada 330780-51-CN
Bentley Nevada 330101-00-08-05-12-CN
Bentley Nevada 330130-005-00-00 Controller Module
Bentley Nevada 128031-01 Input/Output Module
Bentley Nevada 3500/93 135799-02B
Bentley Nevada 3500/40-01-00 (176449-01 + 125680-01)
Bentley Nevada 3500/50-01-01-01 133388-02 (Price: 2.12)
Bentley Nevada 47055-01

Installation conditions for motor starters
When using the ET 200SP motor starter, please follow the following installation conditions:
Installation location
The motor starter can be installed vertically or horizontally.
The installation position should be aligned with the installation guide rail. The allowable temperature range in the environment depends on the installation location:
– 60°C: Horizontal installation position
– 50°C: Vertical installation position. Additionally, the current carrying capacity of the ET 200SP components needs to be taken into account.
For the vertical installation position, please use the end fixing frame “8WA1808” at both ends of the ET 200SP station:
• Install the guide rails. Use one of the following guide rails:
– 35×15 mm DIN rail, in accordance with DIN EN 60715
– 35×7.5 mm DIN rail, in accordance with DIN EN 60715
– SIMATIC S7 Installation Rails

Ningbo Bingsheng 189-6828-8356
• The current carrying capacity of the ET 200SP station. The current carrying capacity refers to the current load that can be carried by the power bus and power supply bus of the ET 200SP station. Depending on the environmental conditions and installation location, fan devices or additional mechanical fixation devices must be considered.
Mechanical support: Use mechanical support in the following situations:
When using a 15 mm installation guide rail for the installation of a single motor starter, the motor starter will not be directly installed next to the guide rail in the system.
Vertical installation position
• Applications that comply with shipbuilding standards in all installation positions equipped with 7.5 mm and 15 mm installation rails
Design an interference-free motor starter
When performing interference-free operation on the ET 200SP station in accordance with the IEC 60947-4-2 standard, a placeholder module needs to be used before the motor starter. However, on the right side of the motor starter, no placeholder module needs to be inserted.

Ningbo Bingsheng 189-6828-8356
Installation conditions for motor starters
Distributed I/O System 78 System Manual, 05/2021, A5E03576855-AK On the standard installation rail between the previous module and the SIMATIC ET 200SP motor starter, the following placeholder module should be used:
BU cover plate 15 mm:
6ES7133-6CV15-1AM0 (with BaseUnit 6ES7193-6BP00-0BA0) To operate the unused BaseUnit together with the ET 200SP station, an outer cover must be provided for the open-ended BaseUnit plug contacts (power connector, power bus connector, and backplane bus connector). Additionally, this cover can prevent the plug contacts from accumulating dust. The BU cover plate can be ordered as an accessory.
Install the placeholder module
The figure below illustrates the schematic diagram of how to implement relevant measures to improve the anti-interference performance.

① Interface module ⑥ Motor starter
② Digital quantity input module ⑦ Motor starter
③ Digital quantity output module ⑧ Service module
④ Positioning Module ⑨ Power Supply Bus Cover Plate
⑤ Motor starter